奥巴马政府内外政策调整与中美关系
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五 简短的结语

奥巴马政府的医疗改革,虽然已经被打上了“奥氏医改”(Obamacare)的印记,但从本质上来说是美国执政的精英集团基于美国国情而发起的一场重大社会改革,其成败对于美国保持经济繁荣和维护国家安全具有战略意义。迄今为止,改革已经取得了一些毋庸置疑的成就。由于本文所述的各种复杂原因,本轮医疗改革能否达到预期的政策目标,推动美国最终实现全民医保的百年梦想,仍有待耐心观察。不过,奥巴马政府医疗改革的经验和教训,值得中国在认真研究的基础上汲取、借鉴。


[1]徐彤武,北京大学国际战略研究院特约研究员。

[2]按照原定计划,这场2009年立法、2010年全面启动的医疗改革要耗时10年。由于各种因素,有些政策的实施已经被一再推迟。另外美国国会预算部门对于这场改革的结果预测一直做到2024年。

[3]Paul Starr,Remedy and Reaction:The Peculiar American Struggle over Health Care Reform(Revised Edition),Yale University Press,2013.

[4]“Remarks by the President during Town Hall Meeting in Elyria,Ohio,January 22,2010”,available at:http://www.whitehouse.gov/the-press-office/remarks-president-during-townhall-meeting-elyria-ohio/,2014-08-07.

[5]Ezekiel J.Emanuel,Reinventing American Health Care:How the Affordable Care Act Will Improve Our Terribly Complex,Blatantly Unjust,Outrageously Expensive,Grossly Ineffective,Error Prone System,New York:Public Affairs(a Member of the Perseus Books Group),2014.

[6]根据汤森路透集团(THOMSON REUTERS)的研究,世界临床医学最发达的20个国家(地区)依次是:美国、英格兰、德国、日本、加拿大、法国、意大利、荷兰、澳大利亚、瑞典、瑞士、西班牙、比利时、芬兰、丹麦、苏格兰、奥地利、以色列、中国、挪威。1998—2008年(2008年4月30日更新),美国共发表临床医学论文679178篇,它们被引用的次数为 10598007次,平均每篇被引用 15.6次。具体数据详见:http://archives.sciencewatch.com/dr/cou/2008/08aug20CLI/,2014-08-07。

[7]Battele/BIO State Bioscience Jobs,Investments and Innovation,2014,pp.11-12.

[8]DeNavas-Walt,Carmen,Bernadette D.Proctor and Jessica C.Smith,U.S.Census Bureau,Current Population Reports,pp.60-236,Income,Poverty,and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States:2008,U.S.Government Printing Office,Washington,DC,September 2009,p.20.

[9]这11个西方发达国家是:澳大利亚、加拿大、法国、德国、荷兰、新西兰、挪威、瑞典、瑞士、英国和美国。对比研究分为五个大的方面:医疗服务质量(quality care)、医疗服务的可获得性(access)、效率、公平性以及公众健康生活状况(healthy lives)。2013年的研究报告在总体结论上与此前数次报告并无很大出入。详见:Karen Davis,Kristof Stremikis,David Squires,and Cathy Schoen,MIRRO,MIRROW ON THE WALL,How the Performance of the U.S.Health Care System Compares Internationally,2014 UPDATE,The Commonwealth Fund,June 2014.

[10]OECD 2010,“Health care system:getting more value for money”,OECD Economics Department Policy Notes,No.2,p.4.

[11]世界卫生组织:《2010年世界卫生统计》(中文版),ISBN 978-92-4-556398-3。

[12]1980年美国的国民卫生支出总额为2558亿美元,占当年GDP的9.2%,人均支出额为1110美元(其中个人医疗保健支出1023美元)。见:Health,United States,2013,Table 112,Gross domestic product,national health expenditures,per capita amounts,percent distribution,and average annual percent changes:United States,selected years 1960-2011,available at:http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/hus/2013/112.pdf,2014-08-08。

[13]“Remarks by the President at the Opening of the White House Forum on Health Reform”,March 5,2009,available at:http://www.whitehouse.gov/the_press_office/Remarks-by-the-President-at-the-Opening-of-the-White-House-Forum-on-Health-Reform/,2014-08-08.

[14]本论文所依据的医疗改革法律文本均为经美国政府印刷局(GPO)验证的正式版本,其PDF文档可以从美国联邦卫生与公众服务部官方网站下载:http://www.hhs.gov/healthcare/rights/law/index.html。

[15]在美国,政府主办的医疗保险计划(government health insurance)主要包括:为65岁以上老年人和残疾人服务的医疗照顾计划(Medicare),为贫困人群服务的医疗补助计划(Medicaid),军人医疗保险,为贫困家庭儿童服务的儿童医疗保险(Children’s Health Insurance Program,CHIP),某些州的福利性医疗保健计划等。所有这些医疗保险计划都不排斥同时也符合其他计划条件的受益人,也就是说一个人或者一个家庭可以参加两个甚至更多政府主办的医疗保险计划,这也造成了部分统计数字的重合。

[16]DeNavas-Walt,Carmen,Bernadette D.Proctor,and Jessica C.Smith,U.S.Census Bureau,Current Population Reports,pp.60-236,Income,Poverty,and Health Insurance Coverage in the United States:2008,U.S.Government Printing Office,Washington,DC,September 2009,p.20.

[17]2014年度这一条款的实际实施标准为联邦贫困线水平的138%,即:成年人的个人年收入16105美元,四口之家的年收入32913美元。截止到2014年元旦,共有26个州和首都华盛顿(哥伦比亚特区)依照《医改法》扩展了医疗补助计划,联邦政府需要为此(直至2016年度)投入840亿美元。见:Executive office of the President of the United States,The Council of Economic Advisers,Missed Opportunities:The Consequences of State Decisions not to Expand Medicaid,July 2014,pp.2-6。

[18]《医改法》规定:全职雇员指可折算为相当于全职雇员(full-time equivalent employee)工作量的人数。另外,“雇主投保义务”条款在经过两度延期生效之后,计划于2015年元旦正式实施。

[19]根据白宫公布的文件,雇员在50人以下的企业占美国企业总量的96%,数量约为580万家。依照《医改法》的规定,估计有400万家小企业符合享受医疗保险税收优惠待遇的资格,联邦政府为此将在10年内为小企业减负400亿美元。参见:The Affordable Care Act Increases Choice and Saving Money for Small Businesses,available at:http://www.whitehouse.gov/files/documents/health_reform_for_small_businesses.pdf,2014-08-13。

[20]医疗保险欺诈犯罪的主要目标是政府主办的医疗照顾计划和医疗补助计划,欺诈得逞的重要原因是联邦政府的官僚化管理。这里有一个最新的例子:从1999年起医疗照顾计划为行动不便的老年人免费配备电动轮椅,迄今已花费82亿美元,其中大量开支被虚报冒领,目前联邦政府尚无法弄清确切损失。见:David A.Fahrenthold,“A Medicare scam that just kept rolling along”,The Washington Post,Sunday,August 17,2014,p.A1。

[21]第一个公开投保期为2013年10月1日至2014年3月31日,在此期间有需要的公众可以为2014年度的医疗保险计划投保。

[22]Katherine Grace Carman and Christine Eibner,Changes in Health Insurance Enrollment Since 2013,RAND CORPORATION,April 2014.

[23]S.R.Collins,P.W.Rasmussen and M.M.Doty,Gaining Ground:Americans’Health Insurance Coverage and Access to Care After the Affordable Care Act’s First Open Enrollment Period,The Commonwealth Fund,July 2014.

[24]Benjamin D.Sommers,M.D.,Ph.D.,ThomasMusco,B.B.A.,Kenneth Finegold,Ph.D.,Munira Z.Gunja,M.P.H.,Amy Burke,Ph.D.,and Audrey M.McDowell,M.S.,“Health Reform and Changes in Health Insurance Coverage in 2014”,July 23,2014,the official website of The New England Journal of Medicine,available at:http://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM-sr1406753,2014-08-09.

[25]Congressional Budget Office,Updated Estimates of the Effects of the Insurance Coverage Provisions of the Affordable Care Act,April 2014,p.4.

[26]Jessica C.Smith and Carla Medalia,U.S.Census Bureau,Current Population Reports,pp.60-250,Health Insurance Coverage in the United States,2013,U.S.Government Printing Office,Washington,DC,September 2014.

[27]根据美国人口普查局基于2010年度总人口状况设立的“人口时钟”(U.S.and World Population Clock)动态统计,美国每8秒钟有1人出生,每13秒钟有1人死亡,每38秒钟接受1名国际移民,总人口每12秒钟净增1人。见:http://www.census.gov/popclock/,2014-09-18。

[28]医疗服务研究与质量局(Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,AHRQ)隶属于联邦卫生与公众服务部,自2003年起每年依法向国会提交关于医疗卫生服务质量和医疗卫生服务不平衡情况的报告。

[29]U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,National Healthcare Quality Report 2013,AHRQ Publication No.14-0005,May 2014,p.4.

[30]Ibid.,p.12.

[31]U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,National Healthcare Quality Report 2013,AHRQ Publication No.14-0005,May 2014,pp.16-17,and U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,Agency for Healthcare Research and Quality,National Healthcare Disparities Report 2013,AHRQ Publication No.14-0006,May 2014.

[32]例如,在亚马逊购书网上受到较多好评(五星)、萨利·派普斯(Sally C.Pipes)的著作《奥巴马医改真相》(The Truth About Obamacare,Regnery Publishing,August 2010),被认为是代表共和党观点的书。但作者是美国知名的医疗卫生问题专家,领导着非营利智库太平洋研究所(Pacific Research Institute)。

[33]Executive Office of the President of the United States,the Council of Economic Advisers,Trends in Health Care Cost Growth and the Role of the Affordable Care Act,November 2013,pp.3-4.

[34]U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,Rate Review Annual Report,September 2014,p.3.

[35]National Coalition on Health Care,The American Health System’s Big Problem:Cost,September 2012,available at:http://nchcbeta.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/09/The-American-Health-Systems-Big-Problem-Cost-2.pdf,2014-08-11.

[36]The Morning Consult,The Morning Consult National Healthcare Tracking Poll:March 2014,Topline Results,p.4,available at:http://themorningconsult.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/MC_March-2014-Tracking-Poll,2014-08-12.

[37]Congressional Budget Office,Updated Estimates of the Effects of the Insurance Coverage Provisions of the Affordable Care Act,April 2014,p.6.

[38]National Conference of State Legislatures,“Health Insurance:Premium and Increase”,Updated March 2014,available at:http://www.ncsl.org/research/health/health-insurance-premiums.aspx,2014-08-20.

[39]U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,CMS Office of the Actuary,A Briefing with CMS’National health Expenditure Accounts Team,“National Health Expenditure Projections 2012-2022:Slow Growth until Coverage Expands and Economy Improves”,September 18,2013,Washington,D.C.,available at:http://www.healthaffairs.org/events/2013_09_18_health_spending_projections_through_2022/,2014-08-14.

[40]Congressional Budget Office,Options for Reducing the Deficit:2014 to 3023,November 2013,pp.181-252.

[41]该理事会依据《社会保障法》(Social Security Act)设立,成员共6人,其中4人为美国联邦政府高级官员,他们分别是财政部长(担任理事会主委)、劳工部长、卫生与公众服务部长和联邦社会保障专员(Commissioner of Social Security)。另外两人为经过总统任命、参议院批准的公众代表。联邦卫生与公众服务部所属的医疗照顾和医疗补助计划服务中心(Center for Medicare and Medicaid Services,CMS)为理事会秘书处。

[42]2014 Annual Report of The Board of Trustees of the Federal Hospital Insurance and Federal Supplementary Medical Insurance Trust Fund,July 2014,pp.1-9.

[43]联邦商务部人口普查局预测:2012—2050年,美国总人口将从3.14亿增加到4亿。到2030年超过20%的美国人将是65岁或65岁以上老年人,这个比例在2010年是13%,1970年仅有9.8%。见:U.S.Department of Commerce,Economics and Statistics Administration,U.S.Census Bureau,Jennifer M.Ortman,Vitoria A.Velkoff,and Howard Hogan,An Aging Nation:The Older Population in the United States:Population Estimates and Projections,May 2014,pp.2-3.

[44]根据国会预算局(CBO)测算,2015—2024年,联邦政府为实施《医改法》条款还要投入13830亿美元。这虽然比原先的预测节省了1040亿美元,但仍然是一笔不菲的支出。见:Congressional Budget Office,Updated Estimates of the Effects of the Insurance Coverage Provisions of the Affordable Care Act,April 2014,p.13。

[45]U.S.Department of Health and Human Services,CMS Office of the Actuary,A Briefing with CMS’National health Expenditure Accounts Team,“National Health Expenditure Projections 2012-2022:Slow Growth until Coverage Expands and Economy Improves”,September 18,2013,Washington,D.C.,available at:http://www.healthaffairs.org/events/2013_09_18_health_spending_projections_through_2022/,2014-08-14.

[46]Congressional Budget Office,Updated Budget Projections:2014 to 2024,April 2014.

[47]Congressional Budget Office,The 2014 Long-Term Budget Outlook,July 2014.

[48]截止到2014年9月30日(2014财务年度截止日),美国联邦政府的公共债务总额已经超过了17.824万亿美元,再次越过国会规定的法定债务总额(Statutory Debt Limit)。见:U.S.Department of Treasury,Bureau of the Fiscal Service,“Monthly Statement of Public Debt of the United States,September 30,2014”,available at:http://www.treasurydirect.gov/govt/reports/pd/mspd/2014/opds092014.pdf,2014-10-09。

[49]Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation,“Kaiser Health Tracking Poll,July 2014”,available at:http://kff.org/health-reform/poll-finding/kaiser-health-tracking-poll-july-2014/,2014-08-10.

[50]Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation,Liz Hamel and Jamie Firth and MollyannBrodie,“Kaiser Health Tracking Poll:August-September 2014”,September 09,2014,available at:http://kff.org/health-reform/poll-finding/kaiser-health-tracking-poll-august-september-2014/,2014-11-06.

[51]PewResearchCenter,“ACA at Age 4:More Disapproval than Approval,but Most Opponents Want Politicians Make Law Work”,March 2014.

[52]Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation,“Kaiser Health Tracking Poll:October 2014”,October 21,2014,available at:http://kff.org/health-reform/poll-finding/kaiser-health-trackingpoll-october-2014/,2014-11-06.

[53]Paul Waldman,“On Obamacare,opinion is locked in for a long,long time”,August 1,2014,Plum Line,The Washington Post website,available at:http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/plum-line/wp/2014/08/01/on-obamacare-opinion-is-locked-in-for-a-long-longtime/,2014-08-06.

[54]1935年《社会保障法》在民主党控制的国会通过时,共和党方面64%的参议员和79%的众议员表示赞成;20世纪60年代的《民权法》(Civil Rights Act)获得82%的共和党参议员和80%的共和党众议员支持;1965年国会表决创建医疗照顾计划(Medicare)的法案时,41%的共和党参议员和51%的共和党众议员投了赞成票;1996年克林顿总统发起的福利改革(Welfare Reform),得到了几乎所有共和党众议员,以及98位民主党众议员和25位民主党参议员支持。见:“Olympia Snowe Is Right”,The Wall Street Journal(Asia),Friday/Sunday,December 11-13,2009,p.12。

[55]Byron York,“No,House Republicans haven’t voted 50 times to repeal Obamacare”,Washington Examiner website,March 15,2014,available at:http://washingtonexaminer.com/nohouse-republicans-havent-voted-50-times-to-repeal-obamacare/article/2545733,2014-08-06.

[56]这个在美国通常被称为“CLASS program”的医疗保险计划,设计服务对象是慢性重病患者或无法行动的残疾人。联邦卫生与公众服务部公开承认,由于实际需求和资源不匹配,这一计划在财务上将入不敷出,于是白宫在2010年秋季宣布暂缓实施相关的《医改法》条款。2012年2月1日国会众议院以267票对159票的表决结果通过废止该计划的决定,28名民主党议员投了赞成票。2013年元旦,随着解决联邦政府预算困境的《2012年美国纳税人减负法》(American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012)生效,该法第642条(SEC.642,REPEAL OF CLASS PROGRAM)也成为废止“CLASS program”的法律依据。

[57]The Morning Consult,The Morning Consult National Healthcare Tracking Poll:March3014,ToplineResults,p.7,available at:http://themorningconsult.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/03/MC_March-2014-Tracking-Poll,2014-08-12.

[58]Karen Tumulty,“New majority likely to mean same gridlock”,The Washington Post,Wednesday,November 5,2014,p.A1;Lori Montgomery and Robert Costa,“McConnell,Boehner drawing a road map”,The Washington Post,Thursday,November 6,2014,p.A1;Sam Levine,“Johe Boehner,Mitch McConnell Pledged Renewed Commitment to Obamacare Repeal”,November 5,2014,The Huffington Post,available at:http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/11/05/john-boehner-mitch-mcconnell-obamacare_n_6111620.html,2014-11-07.

[59]2015年6月25日,美国联邦最高法院9名大法官以6票赞成、3票反对的表决结果支持奥巴马政府医改法律中对居民个人医保补贴的条款解释。按照这一解释,无论居民所在州是否建有本州网上医保交易平台,他们都可在联邦政府医保交易平台登记入保,并可由此获得联邦政府平均每人每月260美元的补贴。

[60]由资深媒体人尼克·泰特(Nick J.Tate)著的《奥巴马医改生存指南》(Obamacare Survival Guide,West Palm Beach,FL 33416:Humanix Books,2012)曾经一连数月名列《纽约时报》、“亚马逊购书网”(Amazon.com)和美国最大连锁书商巴诺书店(Barnes&Noble's)的畅销书榜单前茅。

[61]根据2014年7月进行的一项全国性民调,只有37%的公众知道根据《医改法》而获得医疗保险时,可以在不同的私人医疗保险计划中进行选择,38%的公众对于相关问题回答不出来。见:Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation,“Kaiser Health Tracking Poll,July 2014”,available at:http://kff.org/health-reform/poll-finding/kaiser-health-tracking-poll-july-2014/,2014-08-10。

[62]Henry J.Kaiser Family Foundation,Liz Hamel and Jamie Firth and Bianca DiJulio and MollyannBrodie,“Kaiser Health Tracking Poll:October 2014”,October 21,2014,available at:http://kff.org/health-reform/poll-finding/kaiser-health-tracking-poll-october-2014/,2014-11-06.

[63]U.S.Department of Treasury,Internal Revenue Service,Facts About the Individual Shared Responsibility Provision:…what you need to know,Publication 5156(5-2014),and“Individual Shared Responsibility Provision–Exemptions”,available at:http://www.irs.gov/uas/ACA-Individual-Shared-Responsibility-Provision-Exemptions,2014-08-10.

[64]United States Government Accountability Office,Testimony Before the Subcommittee on Oversight and Investigations,Committee on Energy and Commerce,House of Representatives,“Healthcare.gov,Contract Planning and Oversight Practices Were Ineffective Given the Challenges and Risks”,Statement of William T.Woods,Director,Acquisition&Sourcing Management,July 31,2014.

[65]一个非常典型的例子是:《医疗改革法》中的某些规定同《公共卫生服务法》(Public Health Services Act)的第340B条款有直接联系,由此引发的美国医药业巨头与地方政府的官司一直打到了联邦最高法院。参见:U.S.Supreme Court,563 U.S._(2001),Astra USA,Inc.v.Santa Clara County,Mach 29,2011。

[66]应当强调:这些案件的涉案双方均非单独的个人或机构,所以它们是具有代表意义的集团诉讼案件。

[67]U.S.Supreme Court,567 U.S._(2012),National Federation of Independent Business v.Sebelius,June 28,2012,pp.33-44,pp.45-58.

[68]Executive office of the President of the United States,The Council of Economic Advisers,Missed Opportunities:The Consequences of State Decisions not to Expand Medicaid,July 2014,pp.2-6.

[69]根据《医改法》,联邦卫生与公众服务部(HHS)的卫生资源与服务管理局(Health Resources and Services Administration,HRSA)负责制定有关规章。2011年8月规章公布,它规定:法定雇主必须无偿为女性雇员投保提供“预防与筛查服务”的团体医疗保险,这些服务应包括20种经过联邦食品和药品管理局(FDA)批准的避孕药品或措施,其中应含有至少4种紧急避孕(或终止妊娠)药品或措施。非营利性的宗教组织可以豁免此义务。参见:573 U.S._(2014),Burwell v.Hobby Lobby Stores.Inc,June 30,2014,pp.1-2,pp.8-9。

[70]573 U.S._(2014),Burwell v.Hobby Lobby Stores.Inc,June 30,2014,pp.1-6,pp.35-45.应该注意:该案件中代表联邦政府的一方原来以联邦卫生与公众服务部的部长凯瑟琳·西贝柳斯(Kathleen Sebelius)为代表,2014年6月9日以后,由于西贝柳斯辞职,故政府代表的名字更换为新任部长伯韦尔(Sylvia M.Burwell)。

[71]对于这一裁决的分析,可参见:Erwin Chemerinsky(Dean of the UC Irvine School of Law),“The broad reach of the narrow Hobby Lobby ruling”,June 30,2014,LA Times,available at:http://www.latimes.com/opinion/op-ed/la-oe-chemerinsky-hobby-lobby-supreme-court-20140701-story.html,2014-08-03。

[72]U.S.Court of Appeals for the D.C.Circuit,No.14-5018,Jacqueline Halbig,ET AL.,Appellants,v.Sylvia Mathews Burwell,in her official capacity as U.S.Secretary of Health and Human Services,ET AL.,Appellees,July 22,2014.

[73]U.S.Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit,No.14-1158,David King;Douglas Hurst;Brenda Levy;Rose Luck,Plaintiffs–Appellants,v.Sylvia Mathews Burwell,in her official capacity as U.S.Secretary of Health and Human Services,ET AL.,Defendants–Appellees,July 22,2014.

[74]目前,该案已诉至最高法案,并已判决。见第58页脚注②。

[75]亨利·阿伦对美国医疗卫生体系评价的英文是:“the most complex,kludgy,and costly system on planet Earth”。见:Henry J.Aaron,“Here to Stay–Beyond the Rough Launch of the ACA”,May 7,2014,available at:http://www.brookings.edu/research/articles/2014/05/07-here-to-stay-rough-launch-aca-aaron,2014-07-19。

[76]Kimberly J.Morgan,“Doomed From the Start:Why Obamacare’s Disastrous Rollout is No Surprise”,October 17,2013,available at:http://www.foreignaffairs.com/articles/140179/kimberly-j-morgan/doomed-from-the-start,2014-07-18.

[77]先进医疗技术协会(AdvaMed)是美国主要医疗器械和诊断设备制造商的组织,其会员公司的产品占据了美国国内市场的90%和全球市场的50%;始建于1847年的美国医师协会(AMA)是美国规模最大、涉及专业最多、最具专业声望和权威性的医生组织;1898年成立的美国医院协会(AHA)是美国最主要的医院组织,有大约5000家机构会员;美国医疗保险协会(AHIP)代表了向2亿美国人提供医疗保险计划的约1300家私营医疗保险公司的利益;美国药品研发和制造商协会(PhRMA)是美国所有知名药品研发和生产厂商的商会团体;服务业雇员国际工会(SEIU)是美国、加拿大和美属波多黎各服务业雇员的联合工会组织,它的210万会员中约半数在医疗卫生服务岗位上工作。

[78]McKinsey Global Institute,Accounting for the Cost of US Health Care:A New Look at Why A-mericans Spend More,December 2008,p.20 and p.38.

[79]Peter C.Gtzsche,Deadly Medicines and Organized Crime:How big pharma has corrupted healthcare,London and New York:Radcliffe Publishing Ltd.,2013.

[80]2009年3月17日,中共中央、国务院联合发出《关于深化医药卫生体制改革的意见》,即“新医改方案”。这个文件的全文于4月6日经媒体向社会公布,标志着中国“新医改”的正式启航。两天以后,即2009年4月8日,奥巴马总统下令成立白宫医疗改革办公室,美国的本轮医疗改革也开启了实质性进程。

[81]习近平:《在庆祝全国人民代表大会成立60周年大会上的讲话》(2014年9月5日),《人民日报》2014年9月6日,第2版。

[82]South China Morning Post,“Visiting WHO chief Margaret Chan sees‘great progress’in China’s health system”,July 11,2014,available at:http://www.scmp.com/news/china/article/1552152/visiting-who-chief-margaret-chan-sees-great-progress-chinas-health-system,2014-08-30.

[83]Clea Benson,“How Much Can America Pay for Health Care?”CQ Weekly,October 12,2009,Volume 67,Number 38,pp.2282-2283.

[84]Clive Crook,“America can square its fiscal circle”,The Financial Times(Asia Edition),Monday,February 1,2010,p.11.

[85]Alan G.Raymond,Massachusetts Health Reform:A Five-Year Progress Report,November 2011.

[86]逆向选择(adverse selection)指人们在年轻健康时不购买医疗保险,而等到年老体弱时再去购买的行为。这种行为会大大增加保险公司的经营风险,同时也加重投保人的财务负担。

[87]America's Health Insurance Plans(AHIP)Board of Director's Statement,Now is the Time for Health Care Reform:A Proposal to Achieve Universal Coverage,Affordability,Quality Improvement and Market Reform,December 2008,p.4.

[88]Letter to President Obama,June 1,2009 by the leaders of sectors of health care industry and the attached documents,available at:http://www.hanys.org/reform/2009-06-01_healthcare_spending_growth_rate_letter.pdf,2014-08-11.请注意:这封致奥巴马总统的信及所附的改革建议代表了美国最主要的6家医药卫生产业利益集团对本轮医疗改革的立场。在改革启动之初,奥巴马总统与这“六大家”在白宫达成了包含利益交换内容的协议。

[89]American Public Health Association,Center for Public Health Policy,The Prevention and Public Health Fund:A critical investment in our nation’s physical and fiscal health,June 2012,p.9.

[90]Erin D.Williams and C.Stephen Readhead,Public Health,Workforce,Quality and Related Provisions in Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act(PPACA),Congressional Research Service,June 7,2010(R41278).

[91]这里仅举一例:我国城市白领中35—50岁的高收入人群,平均“生理年龄”超过“日历年龄”10年,也就是提前衰老10年。见:《卫生部中国健康教育中心:我国精英人群提前衰老10年》,《新华文摘》2010年第2期,第131页。

[92]根据经中华人民共和国工业和信息化部苗圩部长签署、中国向世界卫生组织烟草框架公约秘书处提交的第二份缔约方报告书,中国大陆15岁以上人口(其中还不包括流动人口和军人)的吸烟率为28.1%,非吸烟人口暴露于二手烟中的比例高达72.4%,全国每年由于吸烟导致120万人死亡。见:《世界卫生组织烟草控制框架公约报告文书第二期(第二组问题)》,2011年6月。该报告全文可从世界卫生组织官方网站下载:http://www.who.int/fctc/reporting/party_reports/China_5yr_report.pdf。